French revolution and Wordsworth's Romanticism

French revolution influenced on Wordsworth's Romanticism :-

Hello everyone....

This blog based on bridge course assigned by dilip barad sir . In which I'm going to deal with the topic French revolution's influence on Wordsworth's Romanticism.

So firstly the main question is that , French revolution influenced on Wordsworth's Romanticism? And how ? 

Yes, the French Revolution had a significant influence on Wordsworth's Romanticism. Here's a more detailed explanation of how the French Revolution influenced Wordsworth's poetry, followed by a critique of its impact:

Influence of the French Revolution on Wordsworth's Romanticism:

1.Emphasis on Individualism: The French Revolution celebrated the idea of individual liberty and the power of the common people to bring about change. Wordsworth's poetry often focuses on the experiences and emotions of ordinary individuals. His famous poem "I Wandered Lonely as a Cloud" exemplifies the individual's connection to nature and the emotional impact of a solitary experience.

2. Nature and Simplicity: The revolution led to a rejection of the artificiality of courtly life and a return to nature. Wordsworth was deeply influenced by this shift and celebrated the simplicity and authenticity of rural life and the natural world. His poem "Lines Written in Early Spring" reflects this reverence for nature.

3. Social and Political Critique:The French Revolution was a time of upheaval, with the common people rising against oppressive monarchies and aristocracies. Wordsworth's poetry often contained subtle critiques of societal injustices and inequalities. For example, "The Tables Turned" criticizes excessive book learning over the wisdom found in nature.

4.Return to Common Language:The revolutionary ideals of equality and democracy paralleled Wordsworth's preference for using everyday language and the language of common people in his poetry. He aimed to make poetry more accessible to a wider audience and to break away from the ornate language of the 18th century.

5.Personal Expression and Emotion:The French Revolution encouraged individuals to express their political and emotional sentiments freely. Wordsworth, too, emphasized the importance of personal emotions and experiences, seeking to evoke deep emotional responses in his readers. His "Lyrical Ballads" and the Preface to it outlined these principles of emotional expression.

After that let's make critique of this particular topic....

Critique:

1.Simplification and Idealization:While Wordsworth's emphasis on simplicity and the natural world is often celebrated, it can be criticized for idealizing rural life and overlooking the hardships and complexities of the time. This idealization may romanticize poverty and neglect the harsh realities faced by many in rural areas.

2. Escapism: Some critics argue that Wordsworth's focus on nature and personal emotions can be seen as a form of escapism from the social and political issues of his time. By retreating into the beauty of nature, he may be seen as avoiding engagement with the pressing problems of the day.

3. Class Bias: Wordsworth's celebration of the common man can also be critiqued for not fully addressing the class disparities of his era. While he empathized with the struggles of ordinary people, his poetry did not always offer concrete solutions to societal injustices.

4.Limitations of Everyday Language:While the use of common language was a progressive move, it can also be critiqued for limiting the scope and depth of expression in his poetry. Some argue that this simplification might have hindered the complexity of his ideas.

In summary, while the French Revolution undoubtedly influenced Wordsworth's Romanticism and contributed to the development of his distinctive poetic style, it is not without its critiques. Wordsworth's focus on nature, individualism, and personal expression is celebrated for its emotional depth and accessibility, but it can also be seen as overly idealistic, escapist, and at times limited in its social and political engagement. Like any literary movement, Wordsworth's Romanticism has both its strengths and limitations.

Brief note:Absalom and Achitophel

Characters in favour of David and that of Achitophel - draw table and write a few lines on each character in two columns of the table.

Hello everyone.....

This blog is based on thinking activity, assigned by dilip sir barad. In which I'm going to deal with the satirical poem Absalom and Achitophel which is written by John Dryden.

"Absalom and Achitophel" is a satirical poem written by John Dryden in 1681, which allegorically represents the political situation in England at the time. The poem features several characters who either support King David or are aligned with the scheming Achitophel (the Duke of Monmouth). Here's a table with a few lines about each character from both sides:

These are some of the key characters in "Absalom and Achitophel" and their allegorical representations in the political context of the time. King David and his supporters are depicted as upholding the rightful authority, while Achitophel and his faction represent those who seek to undermine and overthrow the established order.

Thank you for reading.

Have a great time.

(This answer is generated by Chatgpt)

NEGETIVE CAPABILITY

What is Negative capability? Explanation with an examples of keats' poems:-

Hello everyone....

This blog based on thinking activity, assigned by Megha ma'am. In which I'm going to deal with a topic negative capability. As we all know that negative capability is a term which firstly use by John Keats. So before discussing about negative capability here is some information about John Keats , and later on two poems of Keats which deals with our main topic negative capability.

John Keats (31 October 1795 – 23 February 1821) was an English poet of the second generation of Romantic poets, along with Lord Byron and Percy Bysshe Shelley. His poems had been in publication for less than four years when he died of tuberculosis at the age of 25. They were indifferently received in his lifetime, but his fame grew rapidly after his death.[1] By the end of the century, he was placed in the canon of English literature, strongly influencing many writers of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood; the Encyclopædia Britannica of 1888 called one ode "one of the final masterpieces". Jorge Luis Borges named his first time reading Keats an experience he felt all his life. Keats had a style "heavily loaded with sensualities", notably in the series of odes. Typically of the Romantics, he accentuated extreme emotion through natural imagery. Today his poems and letters remain among the most popular and analysed in English literature – in particular "Ode to a Nightingale", "Ode on a Grecian Urn", "Sleep and Poetry" and the sonnet "On First Looking into Chapman's Homer".

What is negative capability ? 

"Negative capability" is a term coined by the English Romantic poet John Keats. It refers to a concept in literature and art that emphasizes the capacity of an artist or writer to accept uncertainty, doubt, and ambiguity without pursuing logical answers or resolutions. In essence, it's the ability to embrace and engage with the mysteries and complexities of life and creativity without the need for a fixed, rational solution.

Keats introduced this idea in a letter to his brothers George and Tom Keats in December 1817. He wrote:

"I had not a dispute but a disquisition with Dilke, on various subjects; several things dovetailed in my mind, & at once it struck me, what quality went to form a Man of Achievement especially in Literature & which Shakespeare possessed so enormously—I mean Negative Capability, that is when man is capable of being in uncertainties, Mysteries, doubts without any irritable reaching after fact & reason."

Here's an example from one of Keats' poems,

"Ode to a Nightingale,"

where you can see the concept of negative capability in action:

My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness pains

My sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk,

Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains

One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk:

'Tis not through envy of thy happy lot,

But being too happy in thine happiness,—

That thou, light-winged Dryad of the trees

In some melodious plot

Of beechen green, and shadows numberless,

Singest of summer in full-throated ease.

In this poem, Keats describes his experience of listening to a nightingale's song. He is so entranced by the bird's beautiful and melancholic song that he is transported into a different state of mind. He acknowledges that the nightingale's world and his own are different, and instead of trying to rationalize or explain the experience, he embraces the uncertainty and mystery of the moment. He doesn't seek to dissect the bird's song or analyze its meaning; he simply immerses himself in the emotional and sensory experience, demonstrating his negative capability.

"Ode on a Grecian Urn":

In this poem, Keats contemplates an ancient Greek urn with various scenes depicted on its surface. He finds beauty and significance in the frozen moments captured on the urn, but he also acknowledges the limitations of art in capturing the full range of human experience. Keats, through his exploration of the urn's mysteries and uncertainties, demonstrates his negative capability by not demanding concrete answers from the artwork but by embracing its enigmatic qualities.

In both of these poems, Keats showcases his ability to dwell in a state of uncertainty and ambiguity, appreciating the beauty and depth of life's complexities without feeling the need to resolve them. He allows the mysteries and doubts to coexist with his artistic expression, which is a central aspect of negative capability. It's about finding beauty and meaning in the questions themselves, rather than always seeking answers or resolutions.In this way, Keats shows how negative capability allows the poet (or any artist) to appreciate and convey the profound and complex aspects of life and nature without reducing them to mere intellectual or logical constructs. It's about the ability to live in the moment of creative inspiration and accept the inexplicable, the uncertain, and the contradictory.

Thank you for reading.

Have a great time.

"The Rape of lock" thinking activity

 Hello everyone….

This blog is based on thinking activity on the most famous poem, named "The Rape of the Lock" which is written by Alexander pope . This interesting thinking activity is assigned by vaidehi ma'am. In this blog we're going to discuss some questions . So let's begin…

1.According to you who is the protagonist of the poem Clarissa or Belinda? Why? Give your answer with logical reasons. 

Ans: It's perfectly reasonable to consider Belinda as the protagonist of "The Rape of the Lock" for several compelling reasons:

1. The poem primarily focuses on Belinda and her experiences, making her the central character in the story. The opening lines of the poem describe her preparations for a social event, setting the stage for the narrative.

2. Throughout the poem, Belinda undergoes a character transformation. She starts as a vain and preoccupied young woman but eventually learns to accept the loss of her lock of hair and move on. This development in her character is a hallmark of a protagonist.

3. The poem's title, "The Rape of the Lock," directly refers to the incident involving Belinda's lock of hair. This event is central to the poem and underscores Belinda's importance in the narrative.

4. Alexander Pope's satire primarily targets the superficiality and vanity of the 18th-century high society, with Belinda representing these qualities. The poem's satire is aimed at her and her world, reinforcing her role as the protagonist.

5. Belinda's emotional journey, from the initial shock and anger at the loss of her lock of hair to her eventual resignation and reconciliation, is a significant aspect of the poem's plot. This emotional arc aligns with the typical development of a protagonist in a narrative.

In summary, Belinda is often considered the protagonist of "The Rape of the Lock" because the narrative revolves around her, her character undergoes development, and the central incident of the poem involves her. These factors collectively establish her as the primary focus and central figure of the poem.

But here I also want to as that ,While Belinda is traditionally considered the protagonist of Alexander Pope's "The Rape of the Lock," it is possible to argue that Clarissa plays a significant role in the poem and has some qualities of a secondary protagonist or a key supporting character. Here are some reasons why one might consider Clarissa in this light: Clarissa serves as a moral and virtuous character in the poem, offering guidance and attempting to prevent the disastrous consequences of the feud between Belinda and Baron. Her concern for Belinda's well-being and her efforts to protect her friend can be seen as a noble and protagonist-like quality.Clarissa's character contrasts with Belinda's superficiality and vanity. This contrast highlights Clarissa's role as a moral anchor in the story and emphasizes her importance in the poem's themes.Clarissa's advice and her role in the planning and preparation for the social event are crucial to the unfolding of the narrative. Her actions and decisions have an impact on the plot, making her a significant figure in the story. The relationship between Belinda and Clarissa is central to the poem, and their interactions drive certain aspects of the narrative. Clarissa's loyalty and friendship towards Belinda contribute to the emotional depth of the story.However, it's important to note that even if Clarissa can be seen as a secondary protagonist or a prominent supporting character, Belinda remains the primary focus of the poem. The narrative primarily revolves around Belinda's experiences, character development, and the central incident involving her lock of hair. While Clarissa plays a crucial role, her character does not undergo the same level of transformation as Belinda, and the poem's title itself centres on Belinda's lock of hair. Therefore, while Clarissa is significant, she is not typically considered the primary protagonist of the poem.

2.What is Beauty? Write your views about it. 

Ans: Beauty is a complex and subjective concept that has been contemplated and defined by philosophers, artists, scientists, and thinkers throughout history. It is not a fixed or universally agreed-upon notion but rather one that varies from person to person and culture to culture. Here are some logical perspectives on what beauty might entail:

Beauty is usually considered as an outer appearance all over the world but according to me the real definition of beauty is knowledge, intelligence and your thinking power. Because that probably happened , our outer appearance may have changed our situation and our constant richness supposedly has changed but if we have our beauty of mind and knowledge then it's impossible that any situation can make us stressed or panic . In essence, beauty is a multifaceted and multifaceted concept that encompasses both external and internal qualities, sensory and emotional responses, and is influenced by culture, context, and individual perception. It is a concept that continues to be explored and debated by various fields of study and remains deeply rooted in human experience and expression.

3.Find out a research paper on "The Rape of the Lock". Give the details of the paper and write down in brief what is says about the poem by Alexander pope. 

Ans: Alexander Pope has been the most representative poet of the eighteenth century. He is as representative of his age as Chaucer was of the late fourteenth century and Tennyson of the Victorian Age that his age is known as the Age of Pope speaks of the sovereign position in his age. His most representative poem 'The Rape of the Lock' very faithfully mirrors at least a certain section of English society in the eighteenth century. It captures perfectly the ethos of the aristocratic society of the day. " No writer " , says Leslie Stephen, " reflects so clearly and completely the spirit of his own day as Pope does. " And it is in the Rape of the Lock that he reflects the life of the fashionable aristocratic society of his time completely. The artificial tone of the age, the frivolous aspect of feminist nowhere more exquisitely pictures than in this poem. It is the epic of trifling; a page torn from the petty, pleasure-seeking life of fashionable beauty.

Research paper by : Dr. George Kolanchery Dean (In-Charge) & Asst. Professor Bayan College (Purdue University, USA – Affiliate) Sultanate of Oman

4.Write your views about the significance of hair. Is it symbolic ? 

Ans: Hair holds deep symbolic significance in various cultures and contexts, often serving as a powerful symbol of identity, culture, spirituality, and personal expression. Here are some perspectives on the significance of hair as a symbol:

1. Identity and Individuality : Hair is a vital component of one's physical appearance and is closely linked to personal identity. How individuals choose to style, groom, or color their hair can reflect their unique personality, beliefs, and cultural affiliations. It's a canvas for self-expression and a way for people to assert their individuality.

2. Cultural and Ethnic Identity : Across the world, different cultures and ethnic groups attach profound significance to hair. Hairstyles, hair ornaments, and grooming practices often carry cultural symbolism and traditions. For example, in African cultures, intricate braiding styles can convey one's ethnic background and social status.

3. Spirituality and Religion : Many religious traditions incorporate hair as a symbol of spiritual devotion. In Sikhism, uncut hair symbolizes a commitment to spiritual principles, while in some Native American cultures, long hair is believed to connect individuals to the spiritual world. In Hinduism, hair offerings are made as a sign of devotion.

4. Social Status and Beauty : In societies worldwide, hair is associated with concepts of beauty and social status. Long, healthy, and well-groomed hair is often considered a symbol of physical attractiveness. People invest time and effort in their hair care routines to enhance their self-esteem and perceived attractiveness.

5. Gender and Sexuality : Hairstyles can also carry gender and sexual orientation symbolism. In some cultures, specific hairstyles are traditionally associated with gender roles, while in the LGBTQ+ community, hairstyles can be used to signal one's sexual orientation or gender identity.

6. Rites of Passage and Transformation : Hair is often involved in various rites of passage and transformation rituals. For instance, cutting a child's hair for the first time can symbolize their transition from infancy to childhood. Similarly, people undergoing significant life changes or personal growth may choose to change their hairstyle as a symbolic act of transformation.

7. Loss and Grief : On the flip side, the loss of hair, whether due to illness or age, can be a symbol of vulnerability and mortality. It's a reminder of the impermanence of life and can be emotionally significant for individuals dealing with hair loss.

In conclusion, the significance of hair is undeniably symbolic, and its symbolism is deeply intertwined with cultural, social, spiritual, and personal dimensions. The way we perceive and use hair as a symbol varies widely across different cultures and individuals, but it consistently holds a special place in our collective consciousness as a means of expression and identity.(generated by chatgpt) 

Thank you so much for reading….

Have a great time. 

POST-TRUTH

 Hello everyone……

This blog is based on a Sunday reading task assigned by dilip barad sir, in which I'm going to deal with the topic post-truth.

What is post truth ?

relating to or existing in an environment in which facts are viewed as irrelevant, or less important than personal beliefs and opinions, and emotional appeals are used to influence public opinion.

ORIGIN OF POST-TRUTH

First recorded in 1990–95; post- + truth

Also post-fact, post-fac·tu·al .

WORDS NEARBY POST-TRUTH 

Posttown,post-transcriptional,post-translational,post-traumatic, post-traumatic,stress-disorder, post-truth,post-typhoid, postulancy, postulant postulate, postulate.

Facts and Politics

If we are to understand current politics, I argue, critical scholars need to supplement the prevalent 'social construction of the factual approach with a more polyvalent take on truth and factuality. I suggest that Hannah Arendt's distinction between rational and factual truths, although it simplifies a lot, is helpful for understanding post- truth. Rational truths are truths whose opposite is not a lie, but illusion and opinion (philosophical truths) or error and ignorance (scientific truths). They also contain the Platonic 'true standard of human conduct. Rational truths, Arendt argues, are rarely politically relevant.

What we should be concerned about is the fate of factual truths. They indeed 'constitute the very texture of the political realm'. By facts, Arendt does not primarily mean what Mary Poovey has called 'modern facts - namely, numerical representations of scientific and technocratic knowledge. On the contrary, facts emerge from the deeds of plural human beings, as the Latin word factum (things made, deed, action) suggests. This close relationship to action makes them contingent. Since action is free, facts have 'no conclusive reason for being what they are.

Because of their contingent origin and the dependence on witnessing, facts are highly fragile and vulnerable. If we lose a set of particular facts, 'no rational effort will ever bring them back.

Factual truth is mostly about modest verities of the Mohamed Bouazizi self-immolated on 17 December 2010 type. Given their dependence on testimony and storytelling, their existence is without a doubt socially constructed. In politics, Arendt argued, appearances constitute reality. Accordingly, I argue, facts must also be seen as real, yet not as reflections of things as they are prior to any contact with human perspectives. There are no absolute criteria demarcating truth from opinion, value, or the frame/discourse within which the facts are placed or from which they emerge. Yet, facts have a curious peremptory quality to them - they can even haunt us. The etymology of the Latin facturis rooted in the word fieri, which refers to becoming; hence, facts are what inescapably has become the reality for us.

In terms of epistemic validity, most scholars (and others) tend to - at least implicitly and performatively - subscribe to some form of 'everyday realism' when it comes to facts in the abovementioned category. A sceptic might argue, nevertheless, that the types of factual truth just described are mostly irrelevant. The verities they contain are so "modest" that nothing interesting follows from them. Such an argument needlessly deprecates the political role of factual truth. It assumes facts should be capable of directly dictating policies lest they are doomed to irrelevance. But as Arendt points out, the role of facts is to inform opinions, to constitute the common reference point for widely differing opinions 'inspired by different interests and passions. Facts themselves become meaningful only through the process of exchanging opinions about them.

Such agonal understanding of facts has nothing to do with the liberal marketplace of ideas, which is sometimes evoked as a process that leads to the truth in the public sphere. Nor is the truth about sharing a set of values in the sense of post-historical liberal consensus. Instead of being distilled from the plurality of perspectives, truth invites. 

Accounting for Post-truth

According to a study of US politics conducted at the RAND Corporation, what makes the current situation potentially unique is the mistrust of information sources and the lack of shared facts. This, among other factors, makes possible the success of careless speech. Facts have often in history yielded to prejudices and subjective whims, but in the RAND study, no clear precedents were found in the US history for the current major disagreement over basic facts and their interpretations. Also mistrust of commonly recognized reliable sources of information 'seems to be more pronounced now'.

Some blame intellectual currents of these developments. I argue on the contrary that the issue comes down to more mundane questions regarding the changes in the economy-media-politics complex and the increasing overlap between the three areas of that complex. Indeed, Americans' trust in the mass media has dropped from 72% in 1976 (after Watergate/Vietnam) to 32% today. At the same time, visual media have almost completely replaced written words. The daily circulation of newspapers in the US has dropped to 36,7% of households in 2010 from 123,6% (sic) in the 1950s.

Equally important as the falling credibility of the media is the amalgam of media, economic rationality, and politics in the form of Public Relations (PR) that has slowly evolved to its current form during the twentieth century. PR is essentially about carefully crafted public images. Hence it is linked more directly to bullshit than to careless speech.

PR is a crucial element, however, in creating the structural conditions that allow careless speech to bloom.

Writing as a response to the Pentagon papers in the 1970s, Arendt warned that due to the mass-mediated nature of our society, the image created by PR practices is usually much more visible than the 'original'. The image begins to substitute for reality. It does not matter whether policies lead to any hoped-for tangible outcomes as long as the audience', when they form their judgments, can be made to summon up the image crafted for media circulation rather than 'the stark, naked brutality of facts, of things as they are. Indeed, this can at times be the explicit aim of PR.

In addition to the PR campaigns for politicians, the US has seen the emergence of a highly organised PR industry serving corporate interest by falsehoods and socially engineered science denial. In Russia, several commentators have described the unique reality of post-Soviet capitalism in terms of living in a simulated reality. Such a PR industry has proven extremely capable of manipulating the media and having an impact on their mode of operation. Both media and citizens have increasingly adopted the view that there are always two sides to an issue and hence no definitive truth as such. For Arendt, this can give rise to a peculiar kind of cynicism in which we refuse to believe any truths, no matter how well established. Such cynicism can have devastating consequences. It destroys "the sense by which we take our bearings in the real world - and the category of truth vs. falsehood is among the mental means to this end".

Russia is an enthralling example here. A combination of state controlled TV and a general ethos of moulding reality,  as pictured by Peter Pomerantsev and the novels of Viktor Pelevin, create a world in which everything is PR, or as Pomerantsev title has it, Nothing is True and Everything is Possible. The political technologies applied by Putin seek to create the impression that everybody is lying anyway, so political struggle becomes a matter of creating the best lies and the most appealing character.

Besides PR, two things in the politics-economy-media complex are worth emphasising. First, in the last 50 years. the very concept of news has undergone tremendous change. Up until 1960s and 1970s, news programming had not yet adopted the idea of constant streaming or, even more importantly, of making profit. This left much more time for background work and investigative journalism. Since the 1970s, however, cable news, 24-hour news cycle, and the idea of making profit have turned news into entertainment. And it turns out that controversy and collusion of pre-determined opinions is more entertaining that facts.

In the last decade, social media has added its own twist to this. Many scholars have pointed out that social media amplifies bias, provides distractions and makes us less receptive to inconvenient facts. In the 2016 election, it was also apparent that social media allowed the creation of a radical right-wing media ecosystem capable of insulating its followers from nonconforming news and building active links to conspiracy sites.

Finally, to conclude on a more speculative note, it is worth considering how the transformation of the economy affects our general experience of reality. We live in a world defined by service and experience centred economy. If my comparison of facts to the physical environment holds, we might wonder to what extent our relation to facts resonates with the increasingly fluid, affective, and ambivalent role of physical objects in our lives in the age of on-demand streaming of affective experiences. We increasingly consume images and experiences rather than physical objects. Thus, we increasingly experience things in their stubbornness. Perhaps we also want to stream our personalised, on-demand 'facts'.

Thank you for reading…….

Have a great time.

Dryden as a critic

 John Dryden as a father of English criticism:

John Dryden is often referred to as the "father of English criticism" because of his significant contributions to literary criticism in the late 17th century. His critical works, particularly his essays and prefaces, played a crucial role in shaping the way literature was analyzed and evaluated during his time and for many years to come. Here are some reasons why Dryden is considered a key figure in the development of English literary criticism:

1. Introduction of Neoclassical Ideals: Dryden was a proponent of Neoclassical literary theory, which drew inspiration from the works of ancient Greek and Roman writers like Aristotle and Horace. He emphasized the importance of adhering to classical principles of unity, decorum, and verisimilitude in literature. His critical writings helped establish these Neoclassical ideals as the foundation for evaluating literary works.

2. "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy": One of Dryden's most famous critical works is "An Essay of Dramatic Poesy" (1668), in which he defended the use of rhyme in English drama, discussed the nature of tragedy and comedy, and offered insights into the art of writing for the stage. This essay was not only a defense of English drama but also a significant contribution to the theory of drama.

3. Prefaces and Prologues: Dryden wrote numerous prefaces and prologues to his own plays and translations. In these pieces, he often discussed the principles of good writing, the role of the poet, and the value of classical models. These prefaces served as important critical manifestos and influenced other writers of his time.

4. Translation and Adaptation: Dryden was known for his translations of classical works, such as Virgil's "Aeneid" and Juvenal's satires. Through these translations and adaptations, he introduced classical literature to English readers and demonstrated how to adapt foreign works to the English literary tradition, contributing to discussions about the relationship between translation and creativity.

5. Critical Authority: Dryden's status as a respected poet and playwright gave him considerable authority in matters of literary criticism. His opinions and judgments carried weight, and other writers often looked to him for guidance in matters of style, genre, and taste.

6. Influence on Later Critics: Dryden's critical principles had a lasting impact on English literary criticism. His ideas about the importance of clarity, balance, and reason in literature were echoed and developed by later critics, including Alexander Pope, Samuel Johnson, and the Augustans.

In summary, John Dryden's critical writings and his advocacy for Neoclassical ideals in literature earned him the title "father of English criticism." His works helped shape the way literature was analyzed and evaluated in the late 17th century and continued to influence English literary criticism for generations to come.

JOHN DRYDEN: AN ESSAY OF DRAMATIC POESY

John Dryden (1631-1700) was an English poet, critic, and playwright active in the second half of the 17th century. As a poet, Dryden is best known as a satirist and was England's first poet laureate in 1668. In addition to satires, Dryden wrote elegies, prologues, epilogues, odes, and panegyrics. His most famous poem is Absalom and Achitophel (1681). Dryden was so influential in Restoration England that the period was known to many as the Age of Dryden.

• Samuel Johnson calls John Dryden "the father of English criticism

• Sir Walter Scott calls John Dryden "Glorious John

An Essay of Dramatic Poesy

In this Essay, Dryden has put forward his criticism of dramatic poetry.

Occasion

In the summer of 1665 when Dryden and his wife fled plague-stricken London for the countryside taking along only a few books, the theatres had been re-opened for only a few years and there were exciting new critical ideas from France to be debated. There, in a quiet rustic setting, Dryden went fishing and wrote theory (An Essay of Dramatic Poesy), paraphrasing and quoting directly from Corneille's Prefaces that lay open on the desk. Never having been to France, Dryden knew the French dramatist's plays not from theatre, but from the study.

The Setting & Four Interlocutors

The essay begins with the scene where Four friends, Crites, Neander, Eugenius, and Lesidius are sailing to see a naval battle between the British and Dutch armies. These four characters of the essay are thought to have been related to four critics including Dryden himself. In between, they talk about the poetry which is going to be produced after the naval battle. 

Each one of the interlocutors represents a famous contemporary critic and Dryden himself as Neander or the New Man:

1. Crites: Sir Robert Howard

2. Eugenius: Lord Buckhurst or Charles Sackville

3. Lisedeius: Sir Charles Sedley 4. Neander: John Dryden

Dryden's Aim

In his address, "To the Reader" prefixed to the Essay, Dryden says that his aim was, "to vindicate the honour of our English writers, from the censure of those who unjustly prefer the French before them." However, the real aim is much wider than this. The Essay is also an

attempt to evolve the principles which ought to guide us in judging a play, as well as an effort to discover the rules which could help a dramatist in writing a good play.

The Essay is also a contribution to two current controversies:

1. The comparative superiority of the ancient and the modern . Dryden demonstrates the superiority of the moderns over the ancients, and also the superiority of contemporary (Restoration) English dramatists over the Elizabethan dramatists. 

2. The comparative merits and demerits of blank verse and rhyme for dramatic purpose. Dryden upholds the superiority of rhymed verse.

The Essay's Plan

The Essay handles five critical questions:

1. The relative merits of ancient and modern poets.

2. Whether the existing French school of drama is superior or inferior to the English.

3. Whether the Elizabethan dramatists were in all points superior to those of Dryden's time.

4. Whether plays are more perfect in proportion as they conform to the dramatic rules laid down by the ancients. 

5. Whether the substitution of rhyme for blank verse in serious plays is an improvement.

The Essay's Form

The Essay is written in the form of a Dialogue in the manner of Plato's Republic, and by his skillful handling of it, Dryden made it a popular literary form during the next seventy-five years.

The Critical Positions of the Interlocutors

Crites argues in favour of the ancients: they established the unities; dramatic rules were spelled out by Aristotle which the current-and esteemed-French playwrights follow; and Ben Jonson-the greatest English playwright, according to Crites-followed the ancients' example by adhering to the unities. 

Crites

1. He supports the ancients.

2. The Moderns are dependent upon the ancients. 3. The Moderns do not follow the three units.

4. The Ancients are the law-givers and they should be the models for other writers to follow.

Eugenius favours the moderns over the ancients, arguing that the moderns exceed the ancients because of having learned and profited from their example.

Eugene

1. Although the Moderns have profited from the Ancients, they now excel the ancients through their work.

2. The Ancients have not followed the unities.

3. The Ancients did not have any sense of the division of the play. 4. The Ancients plays lack originality.

5. The Ancients did not include emotions like Love in their plays.

Lisideius argues that French drama is superior to English drama, basing this opinion on the French writer's close adherence to the classical separation of comedy and tragedy. For Lisaius "no theatre in the world has anything so absurd as the English tragicomedy..." 

Lucideus

1. He favours French plays.

2. According to him, the French plays follow the unities properly. 3. Their plots are simple, not complicated like the English plots.

4. He criticizes the English plays for mixing tragedy and comedy. 

5. French plays are more authentic.

6. They prefer emotions over action/plots (violence) 

7. They write their dialogues in rhyming verse.

Neander favors the moderns but does not underestimate the ancients. He also favors English drama and has some critical things to say of French drama: "those beauties of the French poesy are such as will raise perfection higher where it is, but are not sufficient to give it where it is not: they are indeed the beauties of a statue, but not of a man."

Neander goes on to defend tragicomedy: "contraries, when placed near, set off each other. A continued gravity keeps the spirit too much bent; we must refresh it sometimes." Tragicomedy increases the effectiveness of both tragic and comic elements by 'way of contrast. Neander asserts that "we have invented, increased, -and perfected a more pleasant way of writing for the stage... tragicomedy."

Neander criticizes French drama essentially for its smallness: its pursuit of only one plot without subplots; its tendency to show too little action; its "servile observations of the unities...dearth of plot, and narrowness of imagination" are all qualities which render it inferior to English drama.

Neander extends his criticism of French drama - into his reasoning for his preference for Shakespeare over Ben Jonson. Shakespeare "had the largest and most comprehensive soul," while Jonson was "the most learned and judicious writer which any theater ever had." Ultimately, Neander prefers Shakespeare for his greater scope, his greater faithfulness to life, as compared to Jonson's relatively small scope and French/Classical tendency to deal in "the beauties of a statue, but not of a Man."

Neander

1. He supports the English plays.

2. Tragicomedy relieves our audiences from the viness of tragedy. 

3. Lisideius criticizes English Plays for showing violence or death on the stage. Neander defends this by saying that death is the ultimate reality and the English dramatists are only presenting a lively image of nature.

4. He criticizes French dialogues as being too cold and long to suit the taste of the English audience.

5. He defends the violation of the unities by the English dramatists by claiming that there is no harm in violating if the drama is fulfilling its purpose.

Crites objects to rhyme in plays: "since no man without premeditation speaks in rhyme, neither ought he to do it on the stage." He cites Aristotle as saying that it is, "best to write a tragedy in that kind of verse...which is nearest prose" as a justification for banishing rhyme, from the drama in favor of blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter). Even though blank verse lines are no more spontaneous than are rhymed lines, they are still to be preferred because they are "nearest nature": "Rhyme is incapable of expressing the greatest thought naturally, and the lowest it cannot with any grace: for what is more unbefitting the majesty of verse than to call a servant or bid a door be shut in rhyme?"

Neander responds to the objections against rhyme by admitting that "verse so tedious" is inappropriate to drama (and to anything else). "Natural" rhymed verse is, however, just as appropriate to dramatic as to non-dramatic poetry: the test of the "naturalness" of rhyme is how well-chosen the rhymes are. Is the sense of the verses tied down to, and limited by, the rhymes, or are the rhymes in service to, and an enhancement of, the sense of the verses?

The Main Points of Dryden's Essay

1. The appreciation of the worth of the striving, nature-imitating, large scope of tragicomedy and Shakespeare over the static perfection of the ideal-imitating Classical/French/Jonsonian drama.

2. A dramatic act is defined as " an imitation with the aim to delight and to teach, and is considered a just and lively image of human nature representing its passions and humours for the delight and

instruction of mankind." 3. The idea of decorum in the work of art is emphasized.